News

Matching the Airplane with Your Mission

ByHank Gibson February 5, 2019February 18, 2019

Has it come time to buy your first airplane? Have the skies been calling your name? Or are you just tired of standing in the airport security line then getting shoved in a long metal tube with no leg room? Or, maybe you are a businessman who does business in remote areas that have local airports but are hard to get to commercially.

Wherever your need is, you have decided it’s time to make a purchase. If you are familiar with aviation, you may have an airplane in mind that you would like to have, but is that the right airplane for your mission? If you are new to aviation, you may have no idea what airplane to go for. Here are some helpful hints in narrowing down the different airplane options out there to fit your specific mission.

Flying For Enjoyment, but Not Going Far Fast

If you’re just a weekend flyer who is tired of dealing with flight school rentals, but you don’t need to carry a lot of people or go very far, your options are pretty numerous. Anything from a Cessna 152 to a Piper Cherokee, maybe a Beech Sundowner, or a Bellanca Viking, or anything in between. If you are content with taking a weekend hop for a hamburger at 100-110 knots, you have limitless options for airplanes. Tailwheels (Cubs, Citabrias, Huskies) are excellent birds for you well.

Getting Places Fast With Only You and Maybe One Passenger

Need to go 200-300 miles fast and not worried about weight? A Cirrus SR22T, a Columbia 400, or Cessna Corvalis might be just what you need. Cruise speeds on those are all around 180-190 knots at 10,000 feet. All are oxygen equipped if you want more speed higher up, as the service ceilings are 25,000 feet. Payloads run in the range of 400-500 pounds with full fuel. All these have air conditioning options, too.

Hauling More Weight, but Still Need the Speed?

A little slower (150-170 knots) but a little bit more payload options are A36 & B36 Bonanzas, Piper Saratogas, Cessna 206s, or Cessna 210s might suit your fancy. All come in turbo models if you are a high elevation dweller. The Cessna 206 has been used for many years as cargo and people haulers in remote regions like Alaska, South America, and Africa. I’ve even seen pictures of snowmobiles being carried in a 206.

Tired of Oxygen Cannulas?

The next step up from a Cirrus, Corvalis, or Saratoga is the Piper Malibu. A bigger brother to the Saratoga, the different PA-46 models offer one of the best options for a single engine piston out there. All except the Matrix (PA-46-350T) are pressurized, all the pistons cruise about 200 knots, and all are configured with club seating with plenty of leg room. Useful loads range around 1200-1400 pounds (they hold 120 gallons of fuel, so payloads range from 480-680 pounds). The original Malibu (PA-46-310P) only burns 16.5 GPH so that allows partial fuel to be carried to allow more people and bags. All have 6 seats.

Need to Carry Even More Weight?

It’s time to get into the piston twin market, then. A Cessna 414, a Cessna 421, a Cessna 340, a Beech Duke or a Beech Baron are all pretty good options here. The 421 and the 414 have the largest cabins, while the Duke has the highest useful load. Cruise speeds range from 200-220 knots, but the cabin is roomier and you get a few more pounds useful load than a piston single. If you do get into a 421, get good training as they are equipped with Continental geared engines, which can be tricky to operate if you don’t know what you are doing.

Need to Carry a Lot of People and Go Fast?

Turboprops are the way to go for you. King Airs have the most utility while the Pilatus PC-12 is the cream of the single engine turboprop crop as you can put almost anything you want in it. If you have 4-5 passengers, stay away from a Piper Meridian as you can’t carry a lot of weight. Those are better for 2-3 passengers at the most (plus a pilot). The TBM 900 is pricey, but fast (300-325 knots). The original TBM 700 can be had for under a million bucks, you get 280 knots, and a very usable useful load. You still can’t fill all 6 seats with full fuel, but you can do more with it then a Meridian.

Have a Boatload of Money Sitting Around?

A jet might be for you then. Fuel, insurance, maintenance, and hangar costs are high, but jets will get you places real fast with room for all your friends and family.

The Anatomy of a Hot Start
ByHank Gibson January 14, 2021May 24, 2023

Are you one of those pilots who hates fuel stops simply for the fact that the engine doesn’t have time to cool off? You pump gas into the plane, hit the bathroom, get in the plane and the oil temperature is still up at 160-170 degrees, leading you to have to figure out how to get the plane going again with a hot engine. For those without proper training, this usually means a lot of jockeying around with the throttle, mixture, and fuel pump to try and get the thing started without flooding it. After coughing and wheezing several times, the engine finally comes to life, leaving you to only guess what worked and without the knowledge of how to duplicate it.

Let’s take a step back for a minute to see what is actually happening with a hot engine. Once the engine is shut off, the fuel in the lines leading from the tank to the engine is vaporized, meaning there is more air in the fuel lines than liquid fuel. In the engine block itself, there is still liquid fuel in the injectors, but only enough for the engine to cough then quit if started.

When a normal priming and starting procedure is performed, too much fuel is forced into the cylinders and the engine becomes flooded. A flooded engine just means that the stoichiometric ratio is way too rich, meaning there is too much fuel and not enough air. The prime does the trick of getting the fuel vapor out of the fuel lines, but it shoves too much fuel into the cylinders. Once the engine is flooded, it’s a waiting game to allow air into the engine to get the mixture right. All Lycoming powered high performance and turbo charged engines are notoriously easy to flood when hot.

So, what’s the solution? By taking a step back to see what is actually happening, you can attack the problem from the source, which is the fuel lines. You need to get the vapor out of the fuel lines and get some liquid fuel in there. The procedure for this varies based on the make and model of engine, but I’m going to use the example of the Continental IO-550-N that is in a Cirrus SR22. I found this procedure in the Continental Engine Manual and it works every time.

(Pilots of other airplanes, keep reading. I have sections below for PA46s, Columbias, and Bonanzas as well )
- Mixture: Full Lean (this allows fuel in the fuel lines, but prevents it from going past the mixture control into the engine, sending all fuel back to the fuel tank; a small amount of fuel leaks past the mixture control providing prime for the engine)
- Throttle: Idle
- Low Boost Pump: Run for 30-60 seconds (see note below) (15 seconds in the Turbo Cirrus)
- Mixture: Full Rich
- Throttle: Open about 1/4 travel (not 1/4″, that won’t be enough)
- Boost Pump: Off, but have your finger on Low Boost
- Starter: Crank (engine will turn over a few more times before firing, this is normal)
- At the first indication of start, turn the Low Boost on, increase the throttle to ensure the engine catches, then adjust the throttle for 1,000 RPM
  - The engine will fire right about the time you start thinking it isn’t going to work
A few notes regarding engine temperatures:
- If the oil temperature is above 150 degrees, a hot start will be required. If oil temp is close to 200 degrees, run low boost for 60 seconds in a non-turbo. If oil temp is 175, run low boost for 45 seconds in a non-turbo. If oil temp is 150, run low boost for 30 seconds in a non-turbo. Use 15 seconds for all temps above 150 in a Cirrus Turbo.
- If the oil temperature is between 125-150, skip the hot start procedure, don’t prime the engine, leave the boost pump off, and crank the engine, then boost pump on when it starts and slightly increase throttle to make sure the engine catches
- If the oil temperature is between 100-125, skip the hot start, don’t prime the engine, and perform a normal start with the boost pump on
- If the oil temperature is below 100, perform a normal prime and start
Piper Malibu (PA46-310P with Continental Engine)
- Mixture: Full Lean (this allows fuel in the fuel lines, but prevents it from going past the mixture control into the engine, sending all fuel back to the fuel tank; a small amount of fuel leaks past the mixture control providing prime for the engine)
- Throttle: Idle
- Low Boost Pump: Run for 15-30 seconds depending on oil temperature…
  - Greater than 150 degrees: 30 seconds
  - Less than 125-150 degrees: 15 seconds
  - Less than 100-125 degrees, no need to run the Low Boost
  - Perform normal cold start below 100 degrees
- Mixture: Full Rich
- Throttle: Open about 1/4 travel (not 1/4″, that won’t be enough)
- Boost Pump: Off, but have your finger on the Primer Button
- Magnetos: On
- Starter: Crank (engine will turn over a few more times before firing, this is normal)
- Engine should fire with the Low Boost Pump off, but…
  - If the engine starts to die, simultaneously increase the throttle a little bit and hit the primer button.
  - Only tap the primer button, don’t hold it as you’ll flood the engine if you hold it At the first indication of start, turn the Low Boost on, increase the throttle to ensure the engine catches, then adjust the throttle for 1,000 RPM
Piper Mirage & Matrix (PA46-350P and PA46-350T with Lycoming Engine)
- Leave throttle and mixture idle
  - Before you turn the battery on, ensure the mixture is idle cutoff
  - If the mixture is forward and the battery is on, the low boost pump in the fuel tank will start pumping fuel to the engine and quickly flood it
- Ensure Magneto switches are on
- Open throttle 1/4 travel (not 1/4″ as this won’t be enough)
- Crank
- As soon as the engine begins coughing and wheezing (and this is what it will sound like), push the mixture 3/4 of the way forward
- Once the engine has a good solid fire, smoothly and swiftly push the mixture all the way forward
- Reduce throttle
- Note: The Emergency Boost Pump can be used as part of the hot start technique, but I usually leave it off.
  - Pro to the Emergency Boost Pump is it can help suck more fuel in and purge vapor during the start
  - Con is that if the engine doesn’t start on the first try, you are flooding your motor
Columbia 400
- Throttle and Mixture Idle Cutoff
- Vapor Suppression: Run for 30-60 seconds. Reference above temperatures on the non-turbo Cirrus for run times
- Mixture full forward
- Throttle 1″ in
- Prime for 3 seconds, then off
- Crank
- Once engine fires, primer might need to be pushed momentarily to purge excess vapor
  - On Columbia 350s, the throttle should be twisted (or pushed depending on if it’s an Avidyne or Garmin Columbia) in while cranking
  - Be prepared to reduce power once engine fires
Beechcraft 36 Bonanza
- Throttle and Mixture Idle Cutoff
- Low Boost: Run for 30-60 seconds. Reference above temperatures on the non-turbo Cirrus for run times
- Mixture full forward
- Throttle open 1″
- High Boost until fuel flow peaks, then off
- Crank
- Once engine fires, Low Boost might need to be engaged momentarily to purge excess vapor
There are other “procedures” for hot starting out there, but most of them involve starting with full throttle, which can lead to the airplane shooting ahead on a ramp or taxi way if the brakes aren’t properly set. This can lead to high repair costs, so always be cautious. Figuring out what is happening when the engine is hot will give you a better chance of getting it started right away.
Embraer Legacy 450
ByHank Gibson September 5, 2015September 8, 2015

Brazilian manufacturer Embraer recently received FAA certification for it’s “mid-light” Legacy 450. Capable of Mach .83 and a 2,500 mile range, this is one sweet airplane. Embraer designers gave passengers headroom as the cabin stretches up to 6 feet in height down the center. Complete with fly by wire controls and a full glass cockpit configuration, Embraer did a wonderful job with this airplane. The club seats even fold down to a bed!

The airplane’s list price is $16.5 million. To learn more about the Legacy 450, visit Embraer’s website.
The Avidyne Equipped Cirrus Upgrade
ByHank Gibson October 27, 2020October 27, 2020

A History Lesson

11 years ago, in April of 2009, the Avidyne Corporation unveiled the much bally-hooed Release 9, or R9 as it is commonly known, as a hardware replacement for the Avidyne EX5000 Entegra system in Cirrus Aircraft. The Entegra system was way outdated by that point. Even though Avidyne was the first company to put together a glass PFD in a single engine piston airplane, the company had quickly fallen behind Garmin in keeping up with the ever changing technology landscape.

Rewind to 2008. Cirrus had been going strong with the Avidyne Entegra since the SR20 and SR22 went to full glass in 2003 (a PFD and an MFD; prior to that, Cirrus aircraft only had an MFD with steam gauges and a Sandel Electronic HSI). Cessna, on the other hand, vaulted past the Avidyne Entegra and went straight to the Garmin G1000 in it’s aircraft, starting in 2004 with the 182 G1000 and 2005 with the 172 G1000. Beechcraft and Columbia went to the G1000 (Columbia started with the Avidyne as well) in 2005.

Garmin’s technology in 2007 was so much better than Avidyne’s technology that Cirrus decided to switch. I’m sure there were many promises made by Avidyne to Cirrus about what Avidyne was working on (the R9), but the G1000 was out there, available, and being used in a lot of different airplanes with very good results.

So, in 2008, Cirrus made the switch from the Avidyne Entegra to the Garmin G1000, dubbing it the Cirrus Perspective by Garmin avionics package. Avidyne finally got the R9 to market in 2009, but by that time, Piper was the only airplane manufacturer left putting factory Avidyne panels in their airplanes, and they switched to G1000 later that year.

The R9 is a fabulous product. It’s fully integrated, has great graphics, has fully redundant displays, a QWERTY keypad (which, by the way, Garmin didn’t do for another 8 years), and a lot of other neat features. There’s a bit of a learning curve, but it’s a really good product for what it is.

Avidyne, though, was late to the game with their technology. By the time it debuted in 2009, all the GA aircraft manufacturers had long since switched to the Garmin G1000 and weren’t looking back. That left Avidyne with the retrofit market for the many different Avidyne Entegra Cirrus aircraft out there. The only problem was, the retrofit was $80,000 ($95,000 if you wanted to throw in the DFC 100 Autopilot, which is a must have) and not many owners were up for paying that much money, then or now.

To sum up our brief history lesson, Avidyne knew the Entegra needed to go, but couldn’t get the R9 out quickly enough to convince anyone to stick with Avidyne products. The retrofit market didn’t amount to many sales, so Avidyne doesn’t even make the R9 anymore.

As a side note, I really, really like the Avidyne R9 and am sad that it didn’t make it into more airplanes.

So, when the Avidyne Entegra starts to have issues, what’s an owner to do? Keep reading!

There is Hope

There are thousands of Cirrus aircraft out there flying with the Avidyne Entegra instrumentation, which is basically 20 year old technology (I’ve had a computer engineer tell me the programming in an Entegra is Windows 98 tech). These things are going to start having problems at some point (many already have), but what solution do owners have that is cost effective and get’s them new technology?

Remember that little company named Garmin? Well, they have come through again. Announced this summer, the Garmin G500 TXi is now certified as a replacement in the Cirrus Avidyne Entegra equipped aircraft. This means pulling out both the PFD and MFD and replacing them with the G500 TXi on both sides. Engine data is also displayed on the G500TXi MFD, including the percent power and TIT indications, if equipped.

Cirrus SR22 Equipped with Dual G500 TXi Screens and Dual Garmin GTN 650Xi GPS Units

The cost for the panel? Two 10.6″ G500 TXi’s run about $16,000 apiece for the units, not including labor. $32,000 for a brand new panel isn’t terrible. Plus, the G500 TXi’s work with the DFC90 autopilot if the Cirrus is already equipped with it. If not, the Garmin GFC 500 autopilot is now approved for the Cirrus at a relatively low price of $7,000, including the servos.

Still have the original Garmin 430s in your Cirrus? Upgraded to the Avidyne IFD 540/440 stack? Put in dual GTN 650Xi’s? Put in a GTN 750Xi? All are compatible with the G500 TXi panel.

Want to upgrade everything? It does get kind of pricey at that point, but for just equipment, the cost for a complete panel conversion is somewhere in the area of $65,000 plus labor, still below what the R9 cost, but not cheap either. That would include 2 G500 TXi’s, 2 GTN 650Xi’s, a GFC 500 Autopilot, and all the engine monitoring equipment that the G500 TXi would need.

Cirrus SR22 Equipped with Dual G500 TXi Screens, a GTN 750Xi, and a GTN 650Xi

Thankfully, some new technology has finally come to the Generation 1-3 Cirrus. Oh, and by the way, your steam gauge Cirrus is fully upgradable as well.

Want to read more? Check out Garmin’s website.
Where the Airplane Market Is Headed in Q4 2026
ByHank Gibson October 10, 2026
Four things moved this market between July and the end of September, and each one changes the arithmetic on what your airplane is worth today. Inventory is thinner than it was a year ago and has stopped draining. Asking values have split. The Fed raised rates and has penciled in one more increase for December. And the FAA ended single-pilot operation in the legacy Citations. Here is the short version, and what I would do about it before December 31.
The short version

Turboprop inventory is running about 12% under last year, and the field stopped shrinking in September.

Piston asking values are still giving back. Turbine asking values have turned up.

The federal funds rate is 3.75–4.00%, with one more quarter-point increase projected for December.

The FAA rescinded the legacy Citation single-pilot exemptions on September 29, with no wind-down.

Accepted offer to closing runs 30 to 45 days. To close before December 31 you need an offer accepted by about November 15 — which means listing by October 31.
Inventory is thin, and it stopped draining

In September, used single-engine piston inventory in the U.S. and Canada was down 12.2% against last year. Turboprops were down 12.0% worldwide. Jets were down 23.6%, with the large-cabin end off 39.8%. The field your airplane competes against is smaller than it was a year ago.

The monthly direction is the other half. Piston inventory was flat in September, turboprops rose 3.5% and jets rose 5.1% — the second month running that inventory added rather than drained. So the field is thin by the standard of a year ago, and it is no longer getting thinner.

Asking values have split

The three categories stopped moving together. Piston singles fell 0.74% on the month and are down 2.36% against last year. Turboprops rose 0.22% on the month and are up 0.57% on the year. Jets rose 2.02% on the month and are up 0.71%, led by the super-mids at plus 5.29%.

Asking prices are not values, and I will keep saying that. What they give you is the leading edge — VREF and the closed comps follow a quarter or two behind. Right now that edge says the turbine market has turned the corner and the piston market has not.

Rates went up, and may go again in December

On September 16 the Federal Open Market Committee raised the federal funds rate a quarter point, to 3.75–4.00% — the first increase since 2023, on a unanimous vote. The Committee’s own projections point to one more quarter-point increase in December. A financed buyer’s payment is higher than it was in the spring, and his offer reflects it.

The FAA ended single-pilot flying in the legacy Citations

On September 28 the FAA published a policy change rescinding the training-provider exemptions that let a single pilot fly the transport-category Citations. Effective September 29, no wind-down. Thirteen of the fourteen exemption holders reviewed were rescinded or denied renewal.

It catches the two-crew airframes: the 500, 550, S550, 552, 560, 550 Bravo, 560 Encore and Encore+. It does not touch the 501, the 551, the CJ/525 family, the Mustang, or any turboprop.

A large share of those airplanes are owner-flown. That owner now hires a second pilot for every leg, or he stops flying. NBAA and Citation Jet Pilots asked for a 90-day pause on September 29. No answer yet.

The 500-series Citations. The single-pilot exemption ended September 29, with no wind-down.

Why single-engine turboprops gain from it

The demand moves, it does not disappear. The owner-pilot still wants to fly himself, and what he can legally fly is a short list: the CJ family, the Vision Jet, and the single-pilot turbines — TBM, M500, M600, M700, PC-12, JetProp. Those are legal single-pilot by type certificate, not by exemption.

The budgets line up. A clean legacy Citation’s price buys a strong TBM or a good PC-12, so these buyers arrive at the top of the turboprop market, where supply is thinnest and inventory is already 12% under last year.

Expect it in the leading indicators first — inquiries, showings, days on market — with price following a quarter or two behind.

The single-pilot turbines are where the displaced Citation owner-pilots can legally land.

The number that should drive your decision

Our airplanes went from listing to closing in a median of 98 days last year. This year that median is 178 days, an 81% increase. Buyers take longer, financing takes longer, pre-buys are more thorough.

At that pace an airplane listed today closes in March, not December. The year-end buyer is the exception — he is working to a December 31 placed-in-service deadline and moves far faster than the median.

Work the calendar backwards from that deadline. From an accepted offer, 30 to 45 days covers scheduling the prebuy, the inspection itself, the acceptance window and then escrow and title. To close before December 31 the offer has to be accepted by about November 15. To have an offer in hand by then, the airplane needs to be in front of buyers by the end of October. That is the whole reason for the date.

Our closings this year came in a median of 4.8% under the ask the airplane carried when it sold, and 7.1% under its original list price. We reduce the ask; we do not haggle.

On the fence about selling? List by October 31

If you own a Meridian, M500, M600, JetProp, TBM, Epic, PC-12 or Vision Jet and you have been going back and forth, here is the case for the next three weeks.

The buyers are shopping now. The displaced Citation owner-pilots are working through their options this quarter, and what they can legally fly is close to that list. An October listing puts your airplane in front of them while the field is thin. A March listing puts it in the spring wave, beside every other owner who had the same idea over the winter.

We took a full-price offer on one of our single-engine turboprops after a week on the market.

The call is yours. The calendar is the part that is not negotiable.

The Epic E1000, one of the eight types a year-end buyer is shopping right now.
A Proper Cross Country Flight Checklist (Part 1)
ByAndrew Robinson February 8, 2016February 11, 2016

I love cross country flights. Airplanes are designed to travel. When I was instructing private students, my favorite lessons were always the first cross country flights. I looked forward to getting my students out of the pattern, away from the practice area, and showing them what they could really look forward to as a private pilot.

When I was in college, my friend and I borrowed his dad’s Cessna 150, did a cross country flight in it from Indianapolis to Kitty Hawk, then down the coast to Florida. We camped in the grass next to the airplane wherever the airport managers would let us and had our own aviation adventure complete with mechanical problems, unexpected weather, and interesting people along the way. These types of trips have produced some of the best memories and experiences that I’ve acquired during my aviation career so far.

Unfortunately, I know many people whose only cross country flight experience is what was necessary to satisfy their Private and Instrument training requirements. Some of them are nervous about the idea of venturing away from the familiarity of their home airport, while others are relatively new pilots who simply don’t know where to start planning a long cross country flight.

I’ve taken some notes on my preparations for an upcoming cross country flight that I’ll be flying in my dad’s Bonanza. I’m hoping this checklist might help others feel a little more confident that they have everything they need to get going.

Oil

Its always a good idea to bring a few extra quarts of oil. If you stop somewhere and find you need some, its nice to have the right kind on hand. Never assume that the airport you’ll be landing at next will have oil available.

I like to keep a few extra quarts of 15W50 in the back of the Bonanza, just in case (photo from oil-store.com)

Fuel Stops

Here is an example of the 100LL price tool as seen on the Foreflight maps page

I’ve learned the hard way that calling ahead to verify fuel availability can be extremely important. I landed at an airport in Ohio one beautiful Sunday morning to find that the FBO wouldn’t be open until much later in the day. Naturally, there was no other fuel available on the field. I hadn’t called ahead to verify the hours of fuel availability (I assumed they had Self Serve) and had only 2 options: wait a while for the FBO to open, or try and find somewhere else nearby that had gas. As far as price, www.100LL.com is a valuable tool for finding cheap fuel. Foreflight also has posted prices for 100LL and Jet A, but it’s still a good idea to call ahead and verify price and availability.

Batteries for electronics

It’s miserable to run out of batteries for a noise canceling headset with hours remaining in your flight. Bring spares, not only for your headset, but for your flashlight and other gadgets as well. Make sure your hand held GPS, iPad, and Stratus are charged (if you have them). I like to carry a charge cable and adapter as a backup so that I can plug things into the cigarette lighter.

Jumper Cables

We always carry the ground power cable in the back of the Bonanza just in case we ever need a jump. Last month, when I was flying down to Texas, I was glad I had them; we had a dead battery after our fuel stop and had to borrow some power from an FBO worker’s pick up truck. Don’t assume that wherever you are stopping will have the correct cable to jump your airplane, especially if it requires a specific plug.

These are the cables we keep in the back of the Bonanza (photo from airchief.com)

Parking Fees

Every airport is different. I like to call ahead and find out how much the FBO is going to make me pay in landing/overnight fees. When I flew up to Buffalo last summer, I paid 25 dollars for parking at Niagara International (IAG). Had I parked at Buffalo (BUF), they would have charged me over $200.

Approach plates and charts

Make sure you have current approach plates and charts either physically available or downloaded before you blast off. Having a copy of an AFD is a good idea as well, be it digital or paper.

Rental cars

If you arrange it beforehand, many FBO’s will have the car ready for you upon arrival. You may also be able to drop the car off at the FBO when are finished, instead of taking it back to the rental agency. It sure is nice to have the car pulled up next to the airplane when it’s time to unload.

Hotels

Bigger FBO’s may have discounted rates with local hotels. If you call the desk and explain your needs they may offer to book it for you, or at least point you in the right direction. It may be worth picking an airport with more expensive fuel if it puts you closer to the hotels or restaurants you want to go to.

Come back next month for Part 2!

Andrew Robinson is a 135 Charter Pilot and flight instructor who lives with his wife and 2 daughters in Pennsylvania. He flies Pilatus PC-12s and instructs in Beechcraft Bonanzas.
Need To Breath
ByRyne Bergren March 28, 2019April 30, 2019

I got a call today from a friend asking me about oxygen requirements. That got my brain pondering about the different items the FAA would like all pilots to know. I did a little refreshing and found several other tidbits directly from the FAA that I thought worth sharing. No matter what you’re flying, I think these apply to all of us.

First off, what are our general oxygen requirements? If you jump on over to the FAR’s and take a look at 91.211 you’ll see:

1. At cabin pressure altitudes above 12,500ft MSL to 14,000ft MSL, pilots
required to use oxygen unless the segment is less than 30 minutes of flight.

2. At cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000ft MSL, the crew is required to use
oxygen.

3. At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000ft MSL, each occupant must be
provided the use of oxygen. This doesn’t necessarily mean they have to use it.

Things get a little more in depth when you get to pressurized aircraft.

These requirements are also listed in 91.211:

1. If you’re flying above Flight Level 250, a 10 minute supply of oxygen is
required for each person onboard.

2. If you’re flying above Flight Level 350-410, and one pilot leaves their seat, the other pilot will be required to wear an oxygen mask, unless both seats are equipped with quick-donning oxygen masks.

There are three basic components to any oxygen system in an aircraft: the storage system, the delivery system, and the mask or cannula. First, there are several types of storage systems.

Gaseous aviators breathing oxygen is the first. This is the standard green tank that everyone is familiar with. There are two types of tanks. Either the high- pressure with 1800-2200 psi or the low pressure tank with 400-450 psi. The major issue with these and General Aviation aircraft is weight. Some of these tanks can get bulky and heavy and therefore don’t work for everyone.

Liquid aviators breathing oxygen or LOX is another form of storage. The major advantage of LOX is that it has a 900 to 1 expansion ratio, meaning that 1 liter of liquid oxygen can be expanded into 900 gaseous liters of Aviators Breathing Oxygen. The disadvantages of LOX are they are extremely volatile and have to be stored at -197F. If it comes in contact with exposed skin, severe frost bite can occur.

Sodium chlorate candles or oxygen generators have a weight advantage like LOX. They’re essentially a canister that when activated mix sodium chloride and iron powder and produce oxygen. They general have a 600 to 1 expansion ratio, which goes back to the weight savings. However, once these are started they are very hard to stop. Another disadvantage is these devices produce a fair amount of heat, so proper precautions need to be taken.

Next are the delivery systems. The main systems are Continuous Flow, Diluter Demand, and Pressure Demand. Continuous Flow, is exactly as it sounds. The oxygen is allowed to flow continuously from the tank to the user. The benefits of continuous flow are you don’t need a complicated mask or regulator. The downside to this system is since it continuously pumps oxygen, you’re wasting oxygen when you exhale. Most of continuous flow systems are used on aircraft that generally fly below 28,000 feet.

Diluter Demand was designed to fix the negative of the Continuous Flow systems. Diluter Demand only sends oxygen to the user when the user inhales. The system also allows cabin air to be introduced in, sending the perfect mixture of oxygen to the user when needed. These systems are very efficient and generally tend to be used up to 40,000 feet.

Pressure Demand is designed to essentially “over inflate” the users lungs. This will basically pressurize the the users lugs and allow the user to fly above 40,000 feet. This is needed at flights above FL400 because 100% oxygen without positive pressure will not suffice.

The final portion of the oxygen system is the mask or cannula. Nasal cannulas generally are more comfortable and are regulated to 18,000 feet service altitude. Masks come in a couple different variants. From re-breathers to quick-donning, most masks accomplish the same task with a few small differences. Quick-donning must be able to be put on within five seconds and are rated up to FL400.

Since that was a lot of information, what does all of it mean to you? Most fair weather flyers will never run into any of this. However, the high performance owner/operator will run into oxygen use situations a fair amount. Taking the family up to Colorado on a ski trip, jumping up to 12,500 feet to get above some weather, or flying above 5,000 feet at night on a long xc are all situations where you may want to have oxygen on board.

If you are planning on doing any of this type of flying or are currently doing these types of flights, training is a must. If you’ve never been in an altitude chamber, I would highly recommend it. In college, I went with a group to Oklahoma City to the FAA’s headquarters where they hold a class on Hypoxia and High Altitude flying. It’s very informative to be in the chamber as it simulates being oxygen deprived. You get to see how you’ll react and what kind of symptoms you’ll have when in a loss of oxygen situation. Each person has different symptoms, so it’s important to see how you will react.

It’s also good to fly with an experienced instructor. Finding an instructor who will allow you to learn in a safe environment is worth its weight in gold.

Ryne Bergren is currently a First Officer with Mesa Airlines in the CRJ 900. Ryne has experience in many different areas of aviation, from corporate to airlines to teaching to ferrying across the Atlantic Ocean. His passion is for all things that travel across the big blue sky.